Sultan’s Diplomacy and Defiance of the French Campaign in August 1921

Nawras Aziz

1. Introduction

“We imposed ourselves on the Druze through our military display; the arrests carried out among the insurgent members of the al-Atrash family in Swaida had an excellent effect, and my personal visit to the mountain came at a time when minds were primed with fear and receptive to influence. The horizon is clear, and the objective we sought has been achieved. Djebel-Druze must now cease to be a source of unrest and a base for operations against our mandate. By enforcing order there, we control the most important gateway in southern Syria. Damascus Province will feel secure as a result of the occupation of Swaida. As for the city of Swaida itself: it was necessary to influence the spiritual and temporal leaders in the mountain to ensure that our occupation of the capital and our political directives would resonate throughout the region. I easily obtained this opportunity, as the administrative advisor Mr. Trenga signed the invitations sent to prominent figures on behalf of Prince Salim. 

This excerpt comes from a report sent by George Catroux to General Gouraud dated August 28, 1921. The report details numerous names of Druze spiritual and temporal leaders who came to greet Catroux upon his arrival in Swaida, coinciding with the French military force that occupied the city.

Despite Catroux’s euphoria over victory, something marred his mood, as he noted in the report:

“In fact, all the spiritual leaders came to pay their respects; the same for the temporal leaders, except for Sultan Pasha al-Atrash and Mustafa Bey al-Atrash, who—as usual—sent his nephew Najm Bey.”

So, what was the story of Sultan Pasha al-Atrash with the French mission, and who was the commander Pouille who dispatched a military column to al-Quraya to arrest Sultan Pasha?

2. The Central Figure (1)

As mentioned in the second article (2), a military campaign led by Major Pouille entered Djebel-Druze for the first time in the mountain’s history without direct military confrontations. 

But who was Major Pouille?

He was a prominent French officer who played a key role in establishing administrative boundaries between the French and British Mandates in the Middle East during the 1920s. He collaborated with his British counterpart, Stewart Francis Newcombe, in leading the boundary commission between Syria and Lebanon on one side, and Palestine on the other. They drafted the agreement known as the “Paulet–Newcombe Agreement” of 1923.

Pouille also contributed to security control in Djebel-Druze and led the first military campaign into the mountain in August 1921. 

3. French Documents

Several official French documents note Sultan Pasha al-Atrash’s failure to come to Swaida to greet the French mission and pledge allegiance, along with reasons for this behavior and details of his evasion with his companions.

After George Catroux’s arrival in Swaida on August 22, 1921, he sent a confidential letter to General Gouraud dated August 28 (3), numbered /SP1347. It contains extensive details, including names of Druze religious leaders and notables and Catroux’s stance toward them. He describes one notable as an empty, arrogant figure who received generosity from both the French and Prince Abdullah simultaneously. Catroux warned him to change his position under threat of severe penalties and to bring in Ali Ubayd, whom he labeled an “active Sharifian agent.”

Catroux also expressed indignation in the letter over Sultan al-Atrash’s failure to come from al-Quraya to meet him, as well as Mustafa Bey al-Atrash’s sending only his nephew Najm Bey al-Atrash. Catroux reprimanded Najm, asking why his uncle had not come personally. Najm excused it by saying his uncle was now in his seventies and the road to Swaida was long. Catroux replied that all friends of France must seek him out and that he should bring his uncle to Swaida within five days.

In a second document, Major Pouille’s report dated October 3, 1921, states that he formed a military column under Arnaud’s command, consisting of two battalions from the 11th Senegalese Infantry Regiment, a Spahi unit, half a 65mm battery, and two mule platoons. This column departed Swaida at dawn on August 31 for al-Quraya—Sultan Pasha al-Atrash’s stronghold—and set up camp there (4). 

A third document, an intelligence report dated September 4, 1921 (5), notes that Sultan Pasha learned of the column’s route and feared arrest. He took precautions for his safety and property, even asking the Saridiya tribe to host him; they prepared tents for him. On the evening of August 30, he appeared calm and planned to meet the column personally, but a messenger from Umm al-Raman confirmed the column’s intent to arrest him. He withdrew at dawn on August 31 to Bakka.

The report continues that Sultan instructed his followers to receive the French advisor and his entourage well; they stayed in his spacious home. It also notes for aviation reconnaissance on Sultan’s house, possibly for later targeting.

In another document dated August 30, 1921, Administrative Advisor for Djebel-Druze Trenga sent a letter to Prince Salim al-Atrash with assurances that no al-Atrash family member would be arrested. He stated French intentions were pure and issued this declaration:

“On behalf of Commander Catroux, Deputy High Commissioner: To Sultan al-Atrash, all members of the al-Atrash family and their southern friends, and the inhabitants of Miyamas, Salikhad, al-Quraya, Umm al-Raman, and others—no need to worry about anything.” He added that this letter serves as a safe conduct and amnesty. Prince Salim could inform them to avoid misunderstandings (6). 

Yet another document, dated September 1, 1921—a letter in Arabic preserved in the French Ministry of Defense archives, signed by Sultan al-Atrash, Sayyah al-Atrash, and Hamad al-Barbour—diplomatically expresses their awareness of the French mission’s displeasure at their delay in visiting Swaida. It mentions many details they disagree with, accuses some Druze figures of inviting French troops for personal motives, and states they do not wish to meet the advisor amid a military garrison. They propose the garrison return to Swaida, with Trenga coming after a few days with ten soldiers for a meeting in al-Quraya.

Despite Sultan Pasha’s invitation to Advisor Trenga to come to al-Quraya, an archived Arabic letter from a French spy in the mountain reveals Sultan received advice from Prince Abdullah to avoid meeting Trenga. Hamad al-Atrash relayed this to Mut’ib al-Atrash, who forwarded it to Sultan Pasha. According to a letter from the agent calling himself “Loyal Observer,” dated September 9, 1921, addressed to Commander Catroux (7), it reads in part:

“To His Excellency Colonel Catroux, Head of the French Mission in Damascus the Levant, the most distinguished.

This is a follow-up to our previous letters signed ‘Loyal Observer.’ We inform Your Excellency that a confrontation occurred between us and Hamad al-Atrash, a man of Mut’ib Bey al-Atrash, displaced from Burmana and residing in Bursas, Djebel-Druze. After exhausting all necessary intermediaries to extract his information, he opened up: ‘A few days ago, a messenger came from Sharif Abdullah to Sultan Pasha al-Atrash with instructions for Sultan Pasha to refrain from confronting the French government.’ Sultan (meaning Hamad) sent the messenger to Mut’ib Bey al-Atrash, who, after studying it carefully, sent a card to Sultan Pasha saying: ‘Cousin Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, may God preserve you. After best regards. I am ill with smallpox and unable to meet you, but you must avoid confronting the advisor and government representatives for reasons I will explain upon meeting. Focus on strengthening your party and protect Shakib Wahab and his companions from harm. May God preserve you, your cousin Mut’ib al-Atrash.'”

In document (8), an Arabic text dated September 4, 1921, from the first volume of “The True Memoirs of Sultan al-Atrash,” published by his granddaughter Rim al-Atrash in 2021, document No. 8 on page 59 contains a letter from the four spiritual sheikhs to Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, Sayyah Bey al-Atrash, Abdullah Bey al-Abdullah, Hamad Bey al-Atrash, and all sheikhs, notables, officials, beys, and tribal leaders of the Southern District. It warns of the consequences of not greeting the French mission:

“If you value our goodwill toward you, hasten to come and submit. We guarantee against any harm befalling you. If you accept this advice, you are with us and we with you. If you refuse and hesitate, you are neither with us nor we with you; we are absolved of you in this world and the next. The goodwill is yours if you obey and accept. Peace be upon you if you do, praise be to God.”

Sultan did not delay his response. In a translated document (9) from the French Ministry of Defense archives, Sultan replies to the four spiritual sheikhs, expressing dismay at their harsh tone toward him and his companions:

“Greetings and peace… I received your letter and was deeply dismayed by the harsh phrases that diminished our rights as inhabitants of the Southern District. You address us: ‘Hasten before the door of mercy closes on you.’ It is unbecoming for you to become like a twig in the wind; until now, you have submitted to us three times via letters we preserve.”

Finally, in document (10) an intelligence list titled “List of Notables Who Appeared Before the Administrative Advisor Between August 27 and September 5, 1921 “Sultan Pasha and his companions are entirely absent, evidence of his non-compliance with French and local pressures to submit. 

4. Key Takeaways

From the aforementioned documents, we draw several conclusions:

• First: Sultan Pasha al-Atrash and his companions strenuously used diplomatic channels and correspondence to avoid meeting the French mission in Djebel-Druze and prevent military confrontation.
• Second: They clearly expressed resentment over the arrival of French troops in the mountain, conditioning any meeting with Advisor Trenga in al-Quraya on the column’s withdrawal to Swaida.
• Third: It reveals a lack of trust from Sultan al-Atrash and his companions toward the French mission.
• Fourth: Divisions among the mountain’s factions (temporal and spiritual leadership) are evident.

Sources

SHDN, carton GR4-H-118-001, 0093-0094.

Genèse de l’État mandataire – Chapitre X. Effervescence frontalière et resserrement de la tutelle mandataire – Éditions de la Sorbonnebooks. 

The First French Military Entry into Djebel-Druze – مجلة السويداء الفكرية الرقمية

CADN, Carton 1Sl/1/V/551, lettre confidentielle de Colonel CATROUX à Général GOURAUD, Nº 1347/SP, 28-08-1921.

SHDN, carton GR4-H-246-013-0098, Rapport du lieutenant-colonel PAULET sur la colonne du Djebel Druze.

Archives SHDGR, GR 4 H 118 001, 0079-83.

SHDN, carton GR4-H-118-001, 0087.

SHDN, carton GR4-H-120-002, 0105-0106.

Al-Aṭraš, Rīm, al-Muḏakkirāt al-ḥaqīqiyya li-Sulṭān al-Aṭraš, Dār Abʿād li-l-Ṭibāʿa wa-l-Našr, Bayrūt, 2021, al-Mujallad al-ʾawl, Document n° 8, p. 59.

SHDN, carton GR4-H-118-001, 0090-0091.

Swaida Intellectual Digital Magazine. (2026). Vol. 1(3). ISSN: 3099-3172 (online).